Social Movements for Peace and Justice
Abigail A. Fuller
Associate Professor of Sociology and Social Work
Manchester College
June 2008
Advances toward greater peace and justice are most often spearheaded by grassroots efforts. It makes sense, then, for a course on social movements to be central to peace studies curricula. With the steep increase in scholarship on social movements in the past several decades, more materials than ever are available to teach an undergraduate course on peace and justice movements.
Such a course differs from those on nonviolence that are widely offered in peace studies. In courses on nonviolence, the material that students read is typically either philosophical or persuasive, investigating the moral and strategic arguments for using nonviolence in creating social change. They typically include study of the major nonviolent social movements in modern history and their leaders, namely Gandhi and the campaign for independence from Britain and Martin Luther King and the Civil Rights movement. But these readings are descriptive rather than explanatory and focus on a single case or a small number of cases. By contrast, courses on nonviolence have not usually taken advantage of the social scientific research on social movements (generated primarily by sociologists).
Social scientific research generates knowledge that is empirical (based on evidence) and systematic (data are collected and analyzed using accepted methods), and as such can be more accurate and more complete than descriptions of a limited number of nonviolent campaigns. To give just one example, Cress and Snow (2000) compared fifteen different grassroots, nonviolent campaigns on behalf of the homeless in eight different cities. They identified the factors common to the successful campaigns and to the unsuccessful ones. This information could not have been generated by analyzing just one or even several homeless campaign. Nor could it have been garnered from the “how-to” materials written by nonviolent activists, as useful as those materials often are.
Sociological studies of peace and justice movements address a number of questions in the following areas.
- Macromobilization: Why do social movements emerge when and where they do? What kinds of conditions encourage the formation of a social movement? What roles are played by economic crises, social upheavals, weakened political structures, and the like?
- Micromobilization: When a social movement emerges, why do some people join it while others do not? What part is played by an individual’s beliefs, social networks, or prior activism in their decision to join a social movement?
- Framing: How is a social movement’s message packaged–by activists themselves, by the media, by opponents? What kinds of frames are most effective in generating support for and participation in a social movement?
- Organization: What forms of organization do social movement groups take, and to what end? What are the relative merits of decentralized compared with more centralized organizational forms? How do decentralized (or collectivist) organizations operate? How important is leadership?
- Strategy and tactics: How do movement activists decide what methods to use to achieve their goals? How does repression affect movements? When and why do movements form coalitions? How do they win over allies?
- Outcomes: How can we measure the effects of a social movement? What factors contribute to a movement’s success?
This annotated bibliography emphasizes material suited for an undergraduate course. Most research-based writing on social movements, while appropriate for use in graduate courses, is too jargon-filled or otherwise difficult for an undergraduate audience. Because of that limitation, other types of materials are included here as well. Finally, the bibliography is limited to materials on social movements in the United States, for the sake of keeping the task manageable.
Annotated Bibliography
The Albert Einstein Institution.
This web site has a wealth of writings by Gene Sharp and others on strategic nonviolent action. These include everything from handouts to downloadable books to video clips. Helvey’s On Strategic Nonviolence: Thinking About the Fundamentals, one of the downloadable books, is a thorough examination of the planning of effective nonviolent action. Sharp’s The Role of Power in Nonviolent Struggle is a 19-page monograph that is abstracted from his book The Politics of Nonviolent Action.
Benford, Robert D. "Frame Disputes within the Nuclear Disarmament Movement." Social Forces 71 (1993): 677-701.
Analyzes disputes between three factions–radical, liberal, and moderate--of the movement in Austin, TX in the early 1980s. Offers detailed description of the dispute over diagnostic frames (the source of the problem), prognostic frames (what should be done about the problem), and frame resonance (which frames are likely to persuade a particular audience). A good article for both introducing the concept of framing in social movements and generating discussion on issues that commonly face social movement activists, such as single-issue vs. multi-issue demonstrations; the utility of various strategies (educating vs. generating moral outrage); whether civil disobedience would attract or repel potential supporters; and whom mobilization efforts should target (current adherents vs. new audiences).
Berg, John C. Teamsters and Turtles? U.S. Progressive Political Movements in the Twenty-first Century. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003.
The first two chapters lay the theoretical groundwork for the book, giving an introduction to current debates in social movement theory and describing the anti-globalization/global justice movement. The remaining chapters are written by scholar-activists about contemporary movements that are or might be part of this larger anti-globalization movement: the labor movement, students against sweatshops, senior interest groups, the women’s movement, disability movement, anti-AIDs movement, peace movement, Green Party, and human rights movements. The writing is appropriate for an undergraduate audience, and this book has the benefit of covering current rather than past movements, which might engage students more.
Bread and Roses. Dir. Ken Loach. Lions Gate Films, 2001.
An engaging feature film based on the true story of the Justice for Janitors victory in unionizing the mostly immigrant hotel workers in Los Angeles in 1999. It focuses on Maya, a young and feisty recent immigrant from Mexico, and Sam, the scrappy union organizer who recruits her to help him. The strength of the film is its illustration of the difficulties of organizing low-wage immigrant workers (due to the fears of the workers and to management opposition) but also of the joys of solidarity. (And there is an endearing love story in it as well.)
Breines, Wini. "Community and Organization: The New Left and Michels' 'Iron Law'." Social Problems 27 (1980): 419-429.
Argues that the organizational forms chosen by the New Left (consensus decision making, shared leadership, and the like) were a type of “prefigurative politics” whereby activists sought to create within their own groups the kind of society for which they struggled, while eschewing conventional organizational forms. Useful for introducing students to the rationale behind the now-common use of decentralized group structure and process in peace and justice groups.
Buechler, Steven M., and F. Kurt Cylke, Jr., eds. Social Movements: Perspectives and Issues. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield, 1997.
More accessibly written than McAdam’s and Snow’s similar anthology. Includes 34 articles in three sections that focus on the significance of social movements; traditional and contemporary theories; mobilization; organizational dynamics; continuity and cycles; culture and collective identity; and the future of social movements. Each section is given a brief (2-6 page) introduction by the editors. The articles are mostly excerpts from scholarly journal articles and book chapters. Compared to McAdam and Snow, the selections focus less on specific movements and more on general theoretical principles and findings.
Cress, Dan, and David A. Snow. "The Outcomes of Homeless Mobilization: The Influence of Organization, Disruption, Political Mediation, and Framing." American Journal of Sociology 105 (2000): 1063-1104.
Analyzes eight homeless social movement organizations in fifteen cities to ascertain the variables that influenced their outcomes. The five that were most successful all had viable organizations, plus effective prognostic and diagnostic framing. In addition, they either used disruption and had allies on the city council, or used nondisruptive tactics and were located in responsive cities that already had a government agency that dealt with homelessness. In cases where the organization both had city council allies and was in a responsive city, whether their tactics were disruptive or not was irrelevant.
Dobson, Charles. The Troublemaker’s Teaparty: A Manual for Effective Citizen Action. Gabriola Island, Canada: New Society Publishers, 2003.
While this is mainly about community organizing, it contains excellent and thorough yet concise advice meant for “small citizens groups with little or no funding.” Sections include working with the media; dealing with pitfalls and obstacles; meeting with public officials; getting people involved; planning strategy; and how to start.
Eyes on the Prize. Dir. Henry Hampton. Blackside, 1987.
Award-winning documentary about the Civil Rights movement from 1952 to 1985. Comprised of 14 one-hour episodes. There are abundant teaching resources at the website.
A Force More Powerful. Dir. Steven York. Santa Monica Pictures, 1999.
Includes a downloadable study guide. Based on Gene Sharp’s vision of strategic nonviolence, the series documents several examples of the use of nonviolence by twentieth-century social movements. Episodes on Gandhi’s India campaign; sit-ins and boycotts in Nashville, Tennessee in 1960; the anti-apartheid movement in South Africa; Danish resistance to the Nazis during World War II, Solidarity in Poland in 1980, and popular uprising against Gen. Pinochet in Chile in 1983.
Freeman, Jo. “The Tyranny of Structurelessness.” Ms. July 1973: 76-78, 86-89. Jo Freeman.com. Web.
Classic popularly-written article from the 1970s about how structureless groups (formed as a reaction against bureaucratic organization) ultimately became elitist through informal communication (friendship) networks, hidden power struggles, and the media’s appointment of movement “stars.” Ends with a description of the elements of democratic structure.
Fuller, Abigail A. Changing the World: An Introduction to Social Movements. (In progress.)
Concise but thorough introduction to the major theories and concepts in the study of social movements and the major findings from the scholarly literature. Uses a wide-ranging review of the existing literature to teach about the evolution of social movement theory; why movements form; why individuals join them; the kinds of organization social movement activists create; the role of ideology and framing in mobilizing support; types of strategies and tactics used, and the influences on their use; reactions of opponents, especially government repression; and the factors affecting the outcomes of social movements. Examples from specific U.S. social movements are woven into the chapters.
Garner, Roberta. Contemporary Movements and Ideologies. New York: McGraw Hill, 1996.
A textbook that successfully integrates theory and concepts with concrete descriptions of movements. However, in its second section where specific movements are analyzed, four of the chapters are devoted to conservative movements, socialist movements, movements of faith, nationalist movements, and fascist movements, which would not normally be addressed in a peace studies course. (The other four chapters address liberal movements (including Civil Rights), sex and gender movements, the old and new left, and the environmental movement.)
Goldberg, Robert A. Grassroots Resistance: Social Movements in Twentieth Century America. Prospect Heights, Ill.: Waveland Press, 1991.
Heavily historical, but with doses of theory as well. Begins with a 17-page introduction to social movement theory. The chapters cover eight movements: the Anti-Saloon League, the Industrial Workers of the World, the Ku Klux Klan, the Communist Party, and the John Birch Society, the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, the Berkeley Free Speech Movement, and the National Organization for Women. In discussing the movements, Goldberg considers such questions as why people join movements, movement ideologies, leadership, how strategic choices are made, the effects of external events on social movements, and the variables that contribute to successful movements.
Hirsch, Eric L. "Sacrifice for the Cause: Group Processes, Recruitment, and Commitment in a Student Social Movement." American Sociological Review 55 (1990): 243-254.
A scholarly article--though a relatively accessible one--about a student anti-apartheid protest (always a popular topic for undergraduates) at Columbia University in the 1980s. Hirsch analyzes how participants were recruited into the campaign and how their commitment was solidified through democratic group processes and participation in direct action.
Martinez, Elizabeth. “Where Was the Color in Seattle? Looking for Reasons Why the Great Battle Was So White.” ColorLines. Spring 2000: 11-12. Colours of Resistance. Web.
A widely circulated and very astute look at how the planning and execution of the 1999 protests at the World Trade Organization meeting conspired to reduce participation by people of color.
Marx, Gary T. “External Efforts to Damage or Facilitate Social Movements: Some Patterns, Explanations, Outcomes, and Complications.” The Dynamics of Social Movements. Ed. Mayer N. Zald and John D. McCarthy. Cambridge, Mass.: Winthrop Publishers, 1979. Marx, Gary T. Home page. Web.
A detailed and eye-opening description of the various (and usually covert) methods used by the U.S. government to disrupt and discredit New Left organizations.
McAdam, Doug, and David A. Snow, eds. Social Movements: Readings on Their Emergence, Mobilization, and Dynamics. Los Angeles, CA: Roxbury Publishing, 1997.
More suitable for an upper-level than lower-level undergraduate class. Includes 37 contributions from scholars (noteworthy articles published in scholarly journals), which are divided into three sections (on movement emergence; micromobilization, or how people become involved in movements; and movement dynamics, or how movements organize, operate, and succeed or fail). McAdam and Snow’s section introductions are more substantial than Buechler and Cylke’s. The main drawback is that not all of the readings analyze peace and justice movements. U.S. movements covered include the women’s movement; Civil Rights movement; lesbian and gay rights movement; animal rights movement; divestment (anti-apartheid) movement; farmworkers movement; antinuclear movement; pro-choice movement; but also the Hare Krishna movement; the Moonies; prison uprisings; nineteenth century utopian communities. Non-U.S. movements touched on are the Iranian Revolution; Quebec’s independence movement; Western European peace movement; miners movement in Chile; and protests in Italy.
McAdam, Doug. Freedom Summer. New York: Oxford University Press, 1988.
I have used this book in lieu of a standard textbook for years because of its mix of theory, methodology, and good storytelling. It tells the spellbinding story of the white northern college students who traveled to Mississippi in 1964 to register voters and run freedom schools. This is also a methodological detective story, as McAdam relates the process of finding the volunteers; recognizing the themes that emerged from their experiences; and assessing the summer’s impact on the volunteers by comparing them with no shows (applicants who had been accepted but had withdrawn). Excellent analyses of why people join social movements and how that participation effects them, both short term and long term. The book provides the wider context of the civil rights movement, including the danger faced by movement participants as well as the movement’s relationship with the Democratic Party.
Mendez, Jennifer Bickham, and James O'Neil Spady. “Organizing Across Campus and Across Difference: Cross-class Coalition and Worker Mobilization in a Living Wage Campaign.” Labor Studies Journal 32 (2007): 357-381.
A fascinating description of the solidarity as well as difficulties that emerged in organizing a living wage campaign with faculty, staff, and students at the College of William and Mary. Includes candid analysis of both the strengths brought to the campaign by different groups and differences in their assumptions, styles, and goals. Describes how finally the evolution of the campaign into a labor union destroyed its participatory culture.
Meyer, David. The Politics of Protest: Social Movements in America. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007.
This is a concise, jargon-free book written for an undergraduate audience. Meyer organizes the chapters logically: how movements develop, why people join them, how they form organizations and coalitions, strategy and tactics, civil disobedience, the state response to protests, and how movements influence policy. The main drawback is Meyer’s emphasis on the how the American political structure was created to accommodate protest, making the book best suited for political science students. In the same vein, Meyer’s focus is on social movements that target the state, leaving out movements that aim to change attitudes or everyday practices. The book is brief enough to leave room for the instructor to assign additional materials.
Occupation: The Story of the Harvard Living Wage Sit-in. Dir. Maple Razsa and PachoVelez. EnMasse Films, 2004.
An inspiring, fast-paced film that chronicles the student-led campaign at Harvard for a living wage for college employees. The action in 2001 culminated in a two-week occupation of Massachusetts Hall, the administration building on campus, where a video camera documented the sit-in. The film provides lots of background information about the pay and working conditions of Harvard employees. It carefully documents how the core activists in the movement planned and carried out their strategy of attracting supporters, working with the employees, publicly embarrassing the university, gaining media attention, and negotiating with the administration.
Piven, Frances Fox, and Richard A. Cloward. Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail. New York: Vintage Books, 1978.
A classic work used in many social movements courses. Analyses three different U.S. campaigns by and for the poor. The authors’ much-debated conclusion is that the poor, given their lack of resources, make the most gains when they engage in protests that disrupt the functioning of society (and not when they are “led” by formalized organizations, which tend to quell protest).
Prokosch, Mike, and Laura Raymond. The Global Activist’s Manual: Local Ways to Change the World. New York: Thunder’s Mouth Press/Nation Books, 2002.
Contains numerous brief case studies of recent movement campaigns and actions. The essays, written by activists themselves, are inspiring and thought provoking but less practical those in similar how-to books. The sections include cross-border (international, that is) work, building coalitions, challenging white supremacy, organizing, and direct action.
Provides training for nonviolent activists; one of the organizations behind the 1999 Seattle protests and others. The website includes an Action Training Manual that outlines how nonviolent action works and how to plan one.
Schutt, Randy. The Vernal Education Project.
A very extensive website on grassroots social change. The “Papers” section contains forty-some excellent and concise (1-2 page) summaries designed for activists about nonviolent direct action, how to plan strategy, working cooperatively in groups, types of social change, and interpersonal behavior.
Sharp, Gene. The Politics of Nonviolent Action. 3 vols. Manchester, NH: Porter Sargent Publishers, 1973.
The classic work on strategic nonviolence. The first volume (Power and Struggle) provides a synopsis of how nonviolence works, focusing on the nature of power and why people obey. It might be sufficient to assign this volume in a course on social movements. The second (The Methods of Nonviolent Action) categorizes and outlines the varieties of nonviolent action. The third volume (The Dynamics of Nonviolent Action) explores how activists can strategically use their strengths to target the opponent’s weakness, and how using nonviolence affects activists and opponents.
Starhawk. “How We Really Shut Down the WTO.” Starhawk’s Tangled Web. N.p., 1999. Web.
Describes the simple yet ingenious strategy that activist organizations used to stall the World Trade Organization meetings in Seattle in November 1999. Explains affinity groups, spokescouncils, and the like.
This is What Democracy Looks Like. Dir. Jill Friedberg and Rick Rowley. Independent Media Center/Big Noise Films, 2000.
One of the best documentaries of nonviolent action that I have seen. Using on-the-ground video taken by over 100 activists, this moving and dynamic film tells the story of the 1999 Seattle protests against the World Trade Organization. Focuses on the extensive planning, collaboration between groups, the violent police response to the protests, and the media coverage of the protests. Raises a number of discussion points about forming coalitions; strategy; how to respond to violent repression of a movement; and relationships with the media.
An organization that provides training in skills for social change: conflict resolution, nonviolent direct action, meeting facilitation, diversity, and the like. In the “Tools” section of web site are exercises that can be used in groups to learn about nonviolence.
The national organization behind most of the large antiwar demonstrations since the U.S. invasion of Iraq in 2003. The web site has a brief section on nonviolent direct action that includes a history, explanation of how nonviolence works, and types of campaigns.
You Got to Move. Dir. Lucy Massie Phenix and Veronica Selver. First Run Features, 1985.
A documentary about several nonviolent campaigns in the South during the1980s that grew out of the famous Highlander Center in Tennessee, created by Miles Horton to train poor folks in citizen action and nonviolence. The episode I use most often is about a campaign to end the dumping of toxic waste in Bumpass Cove, Tennessee. It shows the remarkable empowerment of several poor, uneducated women as they learn to conduct research, attend government meetings, and participate in nonviolent action. Other episodes show community action against strip mining in Kentucky; a literacy campaign in South Carolina.
AFL-CIO. "A Short History of American Labor." (Adapted from the American Federationist, March 1981.) calisphere.Web.
Curiously, classes on nonviolent social movements often neglect to include the Labor Movement, the oldest and arguably most successful social movement in U.S. history. This is a brief history found online that covers more than 100 years and describes labor-management struggles, including government intervention, and notes the successes and setbacks of labor unions.
United Students Against Sweatshops.
This is the major student organization working on peace and justice issues on U.S. campuses. It was formed in the 1990s in the midst of student campaigns to press their campuses to purchase sweatshop-free apparel. Current projects are the Sweat-Free Campus Campaign, the Ethical Contracting Campaign, and the Campus Living Wage Campaign. The web site has excellent and extensive resources, including information about sweatshops, about past and current USAS campaigns from numerous campus chapters, and a host of organizing materials and toolkits.
Last Updated: May 2009
